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Peer-reviewed work, surveillance data, books, and commentary. Commentary is included because it shaped public questions—not because it answers them.

  1. PEER-REVIEWEDArendt, F., Scherr, S. & Romer, D. (2019). Effects of exposure to self-harm on social media: Evidence from a two-wave panel study among young adults. New Media & Society. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444819850106
  2. PEER-REVIEWEDBartholomew, R. E. & Wessely, S. (2002). Protean nature of mass sociogenic illness: From possessed nuns to chemical and biological terrorism fears. The British Journal of Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.180.4.300
  3. PEER-REVIEWEDBeyens, I., Pouwels, J. L., van Driel, I. I., Keijsers, L. & Valkenburg, P. M. (2020). The effect of social media on well-being differs from adolescent to adolescent. Scientific Reports. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-67727-7
  4. PEER-REVIEWEDBlakemore, S.-J. & Mills, K. L. (2014). Is adolescence a sensitive period for sociocultural processing?. Annual Review of Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115202
  5. DATACenters for Disease Control and Prevention. Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network. https://www.cdc.gov/autism/
  6. DATACenters for Disease Control and Prevention. Data and statistics on ADHD. https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/
  7. DATACenters for Disease Control and Prevention. Youth Risk Behavior Survey data summary and published trend reports. https://www.cdc.gov/yrbs/
  8. PEER-REVIEWEDCinelli, M. et al. (2021). The echo chamber effect on social media. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2023301118
  9. PEER-REVIEWEDCoyne, S. M., Rogers, A. A., Zurcher, J. D., Stockdale, L. & Booth, M. (2020). Does time spent using social media impact mental health?: An eight year longitudinal study. Computers in Human Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.106160
  10. PEER-REVIEWEDCruwys, T., Haslam, S. A., Dingle, G. A., Haslam, C. & Jetten, J. (2014). Depression and social identity: An integrative review. Personality and Social Psychology Review. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314523839
  11. PEER-REVIEWEDDalenberg, C. J. et al. (2012). Evaluation of the evidence for the trauma and fantasy models of dissociation. Psychological Bulletin. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027447
  12. BOOKErikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and Crisis. W. W. Norton.
  13. PEER-REVIEWEDEspay, A. J. et al. (2018). Current concepts in diagnosis and treatment of functional neurological disorders. JAMA Neurology. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2018.1264
  14. PEER-REVIEWEDFoulkes, L. & Andrews, J. L. (2023). Are mental health awareness efforts contributing to the rise in reported mental health problems? A call to test the prevalence inflation hypothesis. New Ideas in Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.newideapsych.2023.101010
  15. COMMENTARYGiedinghagen, A. (2023). The tic in TikTok and (where) all systems go: Mass social media induced illness and Munchausen by Internet as explanatory models for social media associated abnormal illness behavior. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1177/13591045221098522
  16. PEER-REVIEWEDGulliver, A., Griffiths, K. M. & Christensen, H. (2010). Perceived barriers and facilitators to mental health help-seeking in young people: a systematic review. BMC Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-10-113
  17. COMMENTARYHaltigan, J. D., Pringsheim, T. M. & Rajkumar, G. (2023). Social media as an incubator of personality and behavioral psychopathology: Symptom and disorder authenticity or psychosomatic social contagion?. Comprehensive Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2022.152362
  18. PEER-REVIEWEDHaslam, N. (2016). Concept creep: Psychology’s expanding concepts of harm and pathology. Psychological Inquiry. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2016.1082418
  19. PEER-REVIEWEDHatfield, E., Cacioppo, J. T. & Rapson, R. L. (1993). Emotional contagion. Current Directions in Psychological Science. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.ep10770953
  20. PEER-REVIEWEDHeffer, T., Good, M., Daly, O., MacDonell, E. & Willoughby, T. (2019). The longitudinal association between social-media use and depressive symptoms among adolescents and young adults: An empirical reply to Twenge et al. (2018). Clinical Psychological Science. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702618812727
  21. PEER-REVIEWEDHeyman, I., Liang, H. & Hedderly, T. (2021). COVID-19 related increase in childhood tics and tic-like attacks. Archives of Disease in Childhood. https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2021-321748
  22. PEER-REVIEWEDHolland, G. & Tiggemann, M. (2016). A systematic review of the impact of the use of social networking sites on body image and disordered eating outcomes. Body Image. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.02.008
  23. PEER-REVIEWEDHull, M. & Parnes, M. (2021). Tics and TikTok: Functional tics spread through social media. Movement Disorders Clinical Practice. https://doi.org/10.1002/mdc3.13267
  24. PEER-REVIEWEDKeles, B., McCrae, N. & Grealish, A. (2020). A systematic review: the influence of social media on depression, anxiety and psychological distress in adolescents. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1590851
  25. PEER-REVIEWEDLewis, L. F. (2016). Exploring the experience of self-diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder in adults. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnu.2016.03.009
  26. PEER-REVIEWEDLynn, S. J., Lilienfeld, S. O., Merckelbach, H., Giesbrecht, T. & van der Kloet, D. (2012). Dissociation and dissociative disorders: Challenging conventional wisdom. Current Directions in Psychological Science. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411429452
  27. PEER-REVIEWEDMarchant, A. et al. (2017). A systematic review of the relationship between internet use, self-harm and suicidal behaviour in young people: The good, the bad and the unknown. PLOS ONE. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0181722
  28. PEER-REVIEWEDMarcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego-identity status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3(5), 551–558.
  29. PEER-REVIEWEDMüller-Vahl, K. R., Pisarenko, A., Jakubovski, E. & Fremer, C. (2022). Stop that! It's not Tourette's but a new type of mass sociogenic illness. Brain. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awab316
  30. PEER-REVIEWEDNarayanan, A. (2023). Understanding social media recommendation algorithms. Knight First Amendment Institute. https://knightcolumbia.org/content/understanding-social-media-recommendation-algorithms
  31. PEER-REVIEWEDNaslund, J. A., Aschbrenner, K. A., Marsch, L. A. & Bartels, S. J. (2016). The future of mental health care: peer-to-peer support and social media. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796015001067
  32. PEER-REVIEWEDNaslund, J. A., Bondre, A., Torous, J. & Aschbrenner, K. A. (2020). Social media and mental health: benefits, risks, and opportunities for research and practice. Journal of Technology in Behavioral Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41347-020-00134-x
  33. PEER-REVIEWEDNesi, J., Choukas-Bradley, S. & Prinstein, M. J. (2018). Transformation of adolescent peer relations in the social media context: Part 1—A theoretical framework and overview of empirical findings. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-018-0261-x
  34. PEER-REVIEWEDOdgers, C. L. & Jensen, M. R. (2020). Annual Research Review: Adolescent mental health in the digital age: facts, fears, and future directions. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13190
  35. PEER-REVIEWEDOlvera, C., Stebbins, G. T., Goetz, C. G. & Kompoliti, K. (2021). TikTok tics: A pandemic within a pandemic. Movement Disorders Clinical Practice. https://doi.org/10.1002/mdc3.13316
  36. PEER-REVIEWEDOrben, A. & Przybylski, A. K. (2019). The association between adolescent well-being and digital technology use. Nature Human Behaviour. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0506-1
  37. PEER-REVIEWEDOrben, A., Przybylski, A. K., Blakemore, S.-J. & Kievit, R. A. (2022). Windows of developmental sensitivity to social media. Nature Communications. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-29296-3
  38. PEER-REVIEWEDOrben, A., Tomova, L. & Blakemore, S.-J. (2020). The effects of social deprivation on adolescent development and mental health. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(20)30186-3
  39. PEER-REVIEWEDPescosolido, B. A., Halpern-Manners, A., Luo, L. & Perry, B. (2021). Trends in public stigma of mental illness in the US, 1996–2018. JAMA Network Open. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.40202
  40. PEER-REVIEWEDPiper, A. & Merskey, H. (2004). The persistence of folly: A critical examination of dissociative identity disorder. Part I. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674370404900804
  41. PEER-REVIEWEDPretorius, C., Chambers, D. & Coyle, D. (2019). Young people’s online help-seeking and mental health difficulties: systematic narrative review. Journal of Medical Internet Research. https://doi.org/10.2196/13873
  42. PEER-REVIEWEDPringsheim, T., Ganos, C., McGuire, J. F. et al. (2021). Rapid onset functional tic-like behaviors in young females during the COVID-19 pandemic. Movement Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.28778
  43. PEER-REVIEWEDRacine, N. et al. (2021). Global prevalence of depressive and anxiety symptoms in children and adolescents during COVID-19: a meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatrics. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2021.2482
  44. COMMENTARYReality’s Last Stand / associated commentary (2023). Commentary on social-media psychiatric identification and “performative” mental illness (Reality’s Last Stand). Reality’s Last Stand (commentary).
  45. PEER-REVIEWEDRiehm, K. E. et al. (2019). Associations between time spent using social media and internalizing and externalizing problems among US youth. JAMA Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.2325
  46. BOOKTajfel, H. & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations. Brooks/Cole.
  47. PEER-REVIEWEDTwenge, J. M., Joiner, T. E., Rogers, M. L. & Martin, G. N. (2018). Increases in depressive symptoms, suicide-related outcomes, and suicide rates among U.S. adolescents after 2010 and links to increased new media screen time. Clinical Psychological Science. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702617723376
  48. PEER-REVIEWEDValkenburg, P. M., Meier, A. & Beyens, I. (2022). Social media use and its impact on adolescent mental health: An umbrella review of the evidence. Current Opinion in Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.08.017
  49. PEER-REVIEWEDVuorre, M., Orben, A. & Przybylski, A. K. (2021). There is no evidence that associations between adolescents’ digital technology engagement and mental health problems have increased. Clinical Psychological Science. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702621994549
  50. PEER-REVIEWEDWhite, R. W. & Horvitz, E. (2009). Cyberchondria: Studies of the escalation of medical concerns in web search. ACM Transactions on Information Systems. https://doi.org/10.1145/1629096.1629101
  51. PEER-REVIEWEDYanos, P. T., Roe, D. & Lysaker, P. H. (2010). The impact of illness identity on recovery from severe mental illness. American Journal of Psychiatric Rehabilitation. https://doi.org/10.1080/15487761003756860
  52. PEER-REVIEWEDYeung, A., Ng, E. & Abi-Jaoude, E. (2022). TikTok and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A cross-sectional study of social media content quality. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1177/07067437221082854